Name : Latta J. Baraiya
Roll no : 11
Paper : Contemporary Western Theory and Film Studies
Semester : M.A sem 3
Topic : Feminism
Submitted to : Department of English Maharaja Krishnakumarsinhji Bhavnagar University.
Introduction
Many researchers and scholars used the term “Feminism” and they tried to define and explain it differently. Some of them use it to refer to some historical political movements in the USA and Europe. Whereas, others refer it to the belief that women live an injustice life with no rights and no equality Zara Huda Faris explained this idea, as:
“Women need feminism because there are women who suffer injustice”
As Kalpana Nehere writes in her article, the cultural aspects such as traditions, rituals, symbols, literature, etc. in India and abroad show the close association between women and nature. There are some
symbolic expressions like ‘Mother Earth,’ ‘Mother Nature,’ ‘Virgin Land,’ ‘Barren River,’ ‘Flowery Women’, etc. describe the relation of women with the Earth. Robert Briffault (1876-1948) described the central role of women in gynaecocracy as:
‘The state of things brought about by the economic domination of women who remain controllers of property is one of gynaecocracy’,
in his ‘The Mothers’ (1927). The eminent philosophers like Plato, Aristotle, Rousseau, Kant, etc. supported the common belief in contemporary society that of lacking women’s abilities like deliberate, self-determination, etc. As Witt writes, Aristotle (384 B.C.) explained the connections between
1) form and being male, and
2) matter and being female.
Aristotle specified the courage of man shown in commanding and woman in obeying. This Aristotle’s theory of nature provides direct theoretical support for the political status of inequality between men and women.
Contemporary Hindu traditions, rituals and literature support male to have central positions in the family and society. They advise society to take care of male child: and many more things including a) before in marriage - do not marry a girl who has no brother, b) at marriage - give blessings like ‘Ashta Putra Bhav’ (have eight sons), c) after marriage - 1) typical preparation at the time of intercourse, 2) different recipes i.e. boiled banana, etc., 3) performing the specific rituals like ‘Dohale’ (ceremony) in pregnancy. It is dominantly observed that parents and family members perpetually and happily distribute ‘Pedha’ (Indian sweets) after the birth of male child and ‘Barfi’ (Indian sweets) for girl child at birth. Many such observations show the discriminating approach towards girls and boys regarding clothes, education, even food and necessary things, etc. Some of the families, who have male and female child, prefer boy first to give higher and quality education. Indian feminists’ movements are attacked by the ‘Hindu iconography’ and ‘Sanskrit idioms’. They argued that Indian womanhood is the guarantor of cultural difference from the West. Similar observations are recorded by Keller (1994) that is, American print media promotes the maintenance of a gendered division of work at home and workplace.
Origins of Feminism :-
The term Feminism appeared in France in the late of 1880s by Hunburtine Auclert in her Journal La Citoyenne as La Feminitè where she tried to criticize male domination and to claim for women's rights in addition to the emancipation promised by the French revolution.
By the first decade of the twentieth century, the term appeared in English first in Britain and then in 1910s in America and by 1920s in the Arab World as Niswia.Feminism originates from the Latin word femina that describes women's issues. Feminism is concerned with females not just as a biological category, but the female gender as a social category, and therefore feminists shared the view that women's oppression tied to their sexuality. This was so because women and men's biological differences reflected in the organization of society, and based on these differences, women were treated as inferior to men. Whether as a theory, a social movement or a political movement, feminism specifically focuses on women‟s experiences and highlights various forms of oppression that the female gender has subjected in the society.
Three Phases of Feminism :-
According to Elaine Showalter the history of women’s writing in the West is divided into three phases i.e.
1) A feminine phase (1840-1880) - women writers imitated the male writers in their norms and artistic standards. The first wave feminism in Western countries was in the 19th and early 20th centuries as a liberal feminism aimed at emancipation and equality. They struggled for: a) removal of barriers to women’s participation in public life, and b) inserting women into male ways of knowing and doing [girls participate in science, technology, mathematics and boys in languages and humanities].
2) A feminist phase (1880-1920) - a different and often a separate position was maintained. The second wave (Western) feminism from the mid-twentieth century concentrated on the cultural features of female oppression and the structural, social and psychological transformations to achieve women’s liberation. Therefore, feminism not only challenged contemporary sexual relations and politics but produced a new language and discursive framework of: a) liberation rather than emancipation, and b) collectivism rather than individualism. Second wave feminism challenged official (patriarchal) curricula, texts and behaviours and practices including sexuality, femininity and masculinity.
3) A female phase (1920 onwards) - a different female identity, style and content. Feminist histories require a
broad historical geography and to integrate the theoretical contribution of women. The third wave feminism suggested women’s issues in three steps: a) the representation of female empowerment as individual transformation, b) the simplistic resolution of systemic women’s economic problems, and c) the portrayal of political issues as worthy of mockery. Individual empowerment was a key focus of third wave feminism. Western feminists focused on human rights, economic exploitation and political domination.
Connecting theory to sex and gender as differences :-
This epistemological divide between modernism and postmodernism is central to understanding how differences between individuals assigned to different sex categories have been taken up, related debates within feminist psychology, and to the connected issue of how the biological matters. To appreciate this, however, we first need to revisit early mid-20th-century feminist psychology. It is fair to say that feminists at this time, including those within psychology, were preoccupied with addressing the prevailing assumption of ‘natural’ female inferiority (compared to males, of course). Implicit in this assumption is a further assumption of two biological kinds of human beings (sexes), who nevertheless share some common traits, offering the basis of comparison. Most psychologists then (who were primarily men) were so convinced of this truth that they were prepared to assert it without any scientific evidence (Weisstein, 1968/1993).
This framing of a central problem for the psychological study of women, i.e. whether or not there are natural differences between females and males, stretches back to the late 19th century and early 20th century when psychology as a discipline was taking shape. As Jill Morawski has so cogently pointed out, this stuckness could be attributed to feminist empiricism’s alliance with the theoretical foundations of mainstream psychology:
Assumptions about difference, especially difference between men and women, are entrenched in the language, methods, and cognitive orientations of psychology. Even when these notions of difference are critically questioned, they seem to lead to a quagmire of damned if you do, damned if you don’t.
Morawski (1994, p. 21)
Women constitute slightly more than half of the world population. Their role in the social, political and economic development of societies is also more than half as compared to that of men by virtue of their dual roles in the productive and reproductive spheres. They are an important part in the balance of power in societies all over the world. Nowadays, all the decisions made in the world (economical, social, political, educational and artistic) are made by both men and women in an equal way but this was not the reality years before. Women through all this time tried to look for their rights by all means and thanks to the idea of Feminism that helped her to be a partner in all the domains of society. The social and the political rights for women were always at the top of Feminism demands. Woman proves that her efficiency in the society is equal to man throughout her role in all fields as well as at home.
Black Feminism : Example :-
Obviously, when speaking about women rights, equality and suffering we can automatically refer our explanation to Black Women Segregation. Although feminism claimed in its symbols and goals to the equality of all women from every ethnic and social belonging, it did not give importance to the problems of Black females. In practice, feminism concentrated on the needs of middle class white women in Britain and America while posing as the movement for the emancipation of women globally. Patricia Collins as one of the Famous black Feminists considered that feminism did not bring any rights to the black woman at all. Moreover, the Black woman was separated from participating in any social, economical or political activities done by feminist Organizations, which were controlled at that time with white woman.
In one way or another, women in every place suffered, were killed and raped but no one suffered in a violent and painful way like black women. Both man and white women classified Black women as the lower class of women. This is why many Black women started to revolt against this unfair classification and make them create another variant of feminism called “Womanism”, a term coined by Alice Walker in one of her great collections of essays. It was titled as “In Search Of Our Mothers” Gardens: Womanist Prose” (1983). Thus, Womanism established a new space for the Black female literary experience to express their wishes and dreams. She considered womenism as the only truth in the life of any black woman; and the most important thing in this idea is that life is not just asking for equal rights with man but looking for equal rights with white women.
This ideology "womenism" focused on the unique experience, struggles and needs of Black women but it was not able to resist in the face of man orders and control and in the face of White Feminism unfair activities..Womenism was not able to give its fruits in practical way and black women were not able to make this hypothesis became a theory.
Study of Two Frames :-
As we are studying film studies, we are supposed to observe feminism in frames and slates. How can we forget to study these well known frames? So here two frames give us the information through the action and position that how women are shown down with men.
This is the frame from the film "The Birds". The film was produced and directed by Alfred Hitchcock. This film favours a male perspective, and the camera often takes the man's side. In this frame we see that the position of a lady is low. The man's position is shown with a high angle. This high angle shot creates a sense of superiority for the man. The man standing next to the car suggests he is in power. Because the woman in the car looked up at the man. It shows the power relationship between them. And in that relationship he(man) is dominant. Even if the woman is "too independent" she must be taught to submit to the man, to a dedicated man.
These frames are from the "Philadelphia" film. In which we can see that these two frames express two different perspectives. In the first frame we see the three characters: man, his mother and his sister are at the same symmetry. His wife has different things. She is opposite from them. It shows her independence. We also observe her aggression. In the second frame we can see that the expression and position of that lady has changed. She came to the symmetry of other characters. She loses her independence and comes to that side.
So in both the frames from different films we see that always women have to let off her freedom and independence. She always taught from childhood to become a mother, sister, wife. And it shows the dominance of male on females.
Conclusion
During a long period in history, woman was not considered as equal citizens, they suffered from bad treatments, discrimination and racism under man domination and rules. In spite of these problems, they could challenge them and prove themselves over society. Women in the past were living unequal and unfair lives. She was prevented from doing any political, social and economical activities and her only job is being a housewife who takes care of home and children. At that time, women were under the control of a man who dominated all the fields in which he represented the symbol of power.
After all those problems, suffering and misery women in the entire world started to find ways to improve themselves and to change their position in life. They also tried to join their efforts, dreams and wishes to form a universal idea that speaks about all women in any place in the world; this leads to the appearance of Feminism.
By the coming of Feminism, women were able to take back their rights in addition to changing their negative image. Feminism proves that women are capable of playing important roles the same as men. Moreover, the most important goals of Feminism were giving women total freedom in addition to equal opportunities in the representation of political and social events.
References
GHORFATI, Amina, MEDINI, Rabha. “Feminism and Its Impact On Woman in the Modern Society.” 2014., http://dspace.univ-tlemcen.dz/bitstream/112/7902/1/amina-ghorfati.pdf.
Lorraine Radtke, H. “Feminist Theory in Feminism & Psychology [Part I]: Dealing with Differences and Negotiating the Biological.” Feminism & Psychology, vol. 27, no. 3, 2017, pp. 357–377., https://doi.org/10.1177/0959353517714594.
Nehere, Kalpana. “The Feminist Views: A Review.” Feminist Research, vol. 1, no. 1, 2016, pp. 3–20., https://doi.org/10.21523/gcj2.16010101.
Keller, K., 1994. Mothers and work in popular American magazines, Westport, CT: Greenwood, 4-163.
Morawski, J. G. (1994). Practicing feminisms, reconstructing psychology: Notes on a liminal science. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
Weisstein, N. (1968/1993) Psychology constructs the female; or, the fantasy life of the male psychologist (with some attention to the fantasies of his friends, the male biologist and the male anthropologist). Feminism & Psychology 3: 195–210). Originally published as Kinder, Küche, Kirche as scientific law: Psychology constructs the female, by New England Free Press.]
Witt, C., 2004. Feminist history of philosophy, Feminist reflections on the history of philosophy, Ed. Alanen, L. and Witt, C., 55, 1-16.
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